Made for Walking: Density and Neighborhood Form Julie Campoli (Author)
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Museum Studies & Museology
In this era of high energy prices, economic uncertainty, and demographic change, an increasing number of Americans are showing an interest in urban living as an alternative to the traditional automobile-dependent suburb. Many people are also concerned about reducing their annual vehicle miles traveled (VMT) as a way to lower greenhouse gas emissions affecting climate change. But providing transportation options is complex and demands a shift in land use patterns and the way we locate and shape future development.Density is often defined in terms of population per square mile, but such a crude measure makes it difficult to understand the relationship between density and city life. We need to think about urban density by including the density of jobs, schools, and services such as retail, transit, and recreational facilities. Fitting more amenities into a neighborhood within a spatial pattern that invites walking will create the type of built environment that offers real transportation options.Landscape architect and urban designer Julie Campoli challenges our current notions of space and distance and helps us learn to appreciate and cultivate proximity. In this book, developed as a follow-up to Visualizing Density (2007, co-authored with aerial photographer Alex S. MacLean), she illustrates urban neighborhoods throughout North America with hundreds of street-level photographs.Researchers delving into the question of how urban form affects travel behavior identify specific characteristics of place that boost walking and transit use while reducing VMT. In the 1990s some pinpointed diversity (of land uses), density, and design as the key elements of the built environment that, in specific spatial patterns, enable alternative transportation. After a decade of successive studies on the topic, these “three Ds” were joined by two others deemed equally important—distance to transit and destination accessibility—and together they are now known as the "five Ds". Added to the list is another key player: parking. The Ds have evolved into a handy device for defining and measuring compact form and predicting how that form will affect travel and reduce VMT. They share the characteristics of compact development often described as “smart growth.” Lowering VMT by any significant measure will require integrating the D attributes at a grand scale.While thinking big is important, this book visualizes a low-carbon environment in smaller increments by focusing on 12 urban neighborhoods of approximately 125 acres each—a comfortable pedestrian walk zone. Some are in familiar cities with historically dense land use patterns, intertwined uses, and comprehensive transit systems; others have emerged in unexpected locations, where the seeds of sustainable urban form are taking root on a micro level.• LoDo and the Central Platte Valley, Denver, Colorado• Short North, Columbus, Ohio• Kitsilano, Vancouver, British Columbia• Flamingo Park, Miami Beach, Florida• Little Portugal, Toronto, Ontario• Eisenhower East, Alexandria, Virginia• The Pearl District, Portland, Oregon• Downtown and Raynolds Addition, Albuquerque, New Mexico• Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York• Little Italy, San Diego, California• Cambridgeport, Cambridge, Massachusetts• Old Pasadena, Pasadena, CaliforniaThese places were selected because each offers choices: travel options, housing types, and a variety of things to do and places to shop. Their streets are comfortable, attractive, and safe for biking and walking. They all show how compact development can take shape in different regions and climates. Six specific qualities make them walkable: connections, tissue, population and housing density, services, streetscape, and green networks.
- Rank: #306348 in Books
- Published on: 2012-12-12
- Original language:
English
- Binding: Paperback
- 208 pages
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About Boca Raton, according to Wikipedia:
Boca Raton (play /bok rton/) is a city in Palm Beach County, Florida, USA, incorporated in May 1925. In the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 74764; the 2006 population estimated by the US Census Bureau was 86396.[4] The Census 2010 count was down slightly, to 84392.[5] However, the majority of the people under the postal address of Boca Raton, about 200000[6] in total, are not actually within Boca Raton's municipal boundaries. As a business center, the city's daytime population increases significantly.
In terms of both population and land area, Boca Raton is the largest city between West Palm Beach and Pompano Beach, Broward County.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Land boom
1.2 War
1.3 Post-war
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
3 Demographics
4 Culture and attractions
5 Crime
5.1 Crime statistics
5.2 Technological issues
5.3 Organized crime
6 Politics
7 Economy
7.1 Top employers
8 Education
8.1 Public schools
8.2 Private schools
8.3 Higher education
8.4 Libraries
9 Transportation
9.1 Air
9.2 Highways
9.3 Rail
9.4 Water
10 Notable residents, past and present
11 Greater Boca Raton
12 Boca Raton in popular culture
13 References
14 External links
History
The literal translation of "Boca Raton" is "Mouth of The Mouse" ("mouse" in Spanish is "raton"), the Spanish word boca meaning inlet and raton being a Spanish nautical term describing rocks that gnawed at a ship's cable. Another explanation is that it refers metaphorically to a pirate's cove.[7][8] The name Boca Ratones originally appeared on eighteenth century maps associated with an inlet in the Biscayne Bay area of Miami. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the term was mistakenly moved north to its current location on most maps and applied to the inland waterway from the closed inlet north for 8.5 miles (13.7 km), which was called the "Boca Ratones Lagoon".
The first settler was TM Rickards in 1895 who resided in a house made of driftwood on the east side of the East Coast Canal south of what is now the Palmetto Park Road bridge. He surveyed and sold land from the canal to beyond the railroad north of what is now Palmetto Park Road.[9]
Land boom
During the city's early history during the Florida land boom of the 1920s, Addison Mizner's Ritz-Carlton Cloister Inn was built in 1926,[10] later renamed the Boca Raton Resort & Club. It is today often referred to as the "pink hotel" and a 1969 addition is visible from miles away as a towering building on the Intracoastal Waterway.
War
Japanese farmers of the Yamato Colony converted the land west of the city into pineapple plantations beginning in 1904. During World War II, much of their land was confiscated and used as the site of the Boca Raton Army Air Force Base, a major training facility for B-29 bomber crews and radar operators. Much of the airbase was later donated to Palm Beach County and later become the grounds of Florida Atlantic University, many of whose parking lots are former runways of the airbase; when viewed from above, the site's layout for its previous use as an airfield is plainly evident. Boca Raton Airport's runway 5/23 was once part of the original airbase, and is still active to this day.
The Japanese heritage of the Yamato Colony survives in the name of Yamato Road (NW 51st Street) just north of the airport and at the Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens northwest of the city. The headquarters building of the Army Air Forces Base has survived as the office building for the Cynthia Gardens apartment complex on Northwest 4th Avenue.
Post-war
In the late 1960s, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) announced their intentions to open a manufacturing plant in the area. In 1965, well before the extension of I-95 into Southern Florida, IBM, working in secret with the Arvida corporation, quietly purchased several-hundred acres of real estate just west of the CSX rail line and northwest of Florida Atlantic University in University Park. Originally situated in unincorporated Palm Beach County, the site was controversially annexed into Boca Raton almost a year following its dedication in 1970.[11]
The Boca Corporate Center and Campus was originally one of IBM's research labs where the PC was created. It is located on Yamato Rd (NW 51st St), and stands next to the Boca Raton Tri-Rail Station.
Construction of IBM's main complex began in earnest in 1967, and the mammoth manufacturing and office complex was dedicated in March 1970. The campus was designed with self-sufficiency in mind, and to that end sported its own electrical substation, water pumping station, and rail-spur. Among other very noteworthy IT accomplishments, such as the mass manufacture of the System/360 and development of the Series/1 mainframe computers, IBM's main complex was the birthplace of the IBM PC, which later evolved into the IBM Personal System/2, developed in nearby Delray Beach. Starting in 1987, IBM relocated their manufacturing for what became the IBM PC division to Research Triangle Park in Raleigh, North Carolina, and converted the cavernous manufacturing facilities into offices and laboratories, later producing products such as the OS/2 operating system and VoiceType Dictation, later known as ViaVoice voice-recognition software.
IBM maintained its facilities in the South Florida area until 1996, when the facility was closed and sold to Blue Lake Real Estate, who in turn sold it to T-REX Management Consortium. Today, T-REX has revitalized the facility and its surrounding real estate into a highly-successful and landscaped business/research park. What used to be IBM's Building 051, an annex separated from the former main IBM campus by Spanish River Boulevard was donated to the Palm Beach County School District and converted into Don Estridge High Tech Middle School. It is named for Don Estridge, whose team was responsible for developing the IBM PC. IBM later returned in July 2001 opening the current software development laboratory at Beacon Square off Congress Avenue.
Bluegreen Corporation, a real-estate and timeshare resort developer, has had its main office in Boca Raton since 1966.
In the 1980s, because of an explosion of development to the west of the historical center of the city, some eastern areas began to decay, including the downtown corridor. For instance, the old Boca Raton Mall, a shopping mall in the downtown area was beginning to experience higher vacancy, and occupancy by marginal tenants, due to the opening of Town Center at Boca Raton west of the city in 1980.
Mizner Park is a downtown attraction in Boca Raton's financial district. It is the furthest north part of Boca's downtown area, and home to 'Mizner Park Amphitheater'.
In 1991, the new downtown outdoor shopping and dining center, Mizner Park, was completed over the site of the old Boca Raton Mall. It has since become a cultural center for the southern Palm Beach County. Featuring a landscaped central park between the two main roads (collectively called Plaza Real) with stores only on the outside of the roads, Mizner Park resembles a Mediterranean suburban "town center" with a more contemporary look. It features many restaurants and is home to the Boca Raton Museum of Art which moved to the new facility in 2001."Boca Raton Museum of Art" In 2002, a new amphitheater was built replacing a smaller one, providing a large-capacity outdoor venue where concerts and other performances are held.[12]
Mizner Park has significantly aided downtown revitalization. Many new eight to ten story mixed-use buildings have been constructed, are currently under construction or are proposed for the downtown area. The surrounding areas to the downtown have benefited from the downtown redevelopment.
The National Cartoon Museum (formally the International Museum of Cartoon Art) built a 25000-square-foot (2300 m2) facility on the southwest edge of Mizner Park in 1996. Open for six years, the museum relocated to its original home in New York City in 2002. Building renovations for public uses, including the local public TV station, and private uses, such as a locally-owned and operated bookstore were completed in 2008. In addition to the Mizner Park Cultural Arts Association's theater and space, the building is home to the Schmidt Family Foundation.
As development continued to focus to the west of the city in the 1980s and 1990s, the mall area, Town Center at Boca Raton, became the geographic center of what is referred to as Boca Raton, though this mall was not actually annexed into the city until 2004. The area referred to as Boca Raton, including the unincorporated area west of the city (and discussed below), is now almost entirely built out.
In 1999, the Simon Property Group bought Town Center at Boca Raton and redeveloped it. Nordstrom was added as the anchor department store for the new wing. Neiman Marcus is the newest department store tenant as of 2006. In-late 2006, Simon began the construction stage of an outdoor lifestyle center near the new wing. Town Center Mall has become a tourist attraction and the largest indoor mall in Palm Beach County.
Boca Raton has a strict development code, including the size and types of commercial buildings, building signs and advertisements which may be erected within the city limits. No outdoor car dealerships are allowed in the municipality, according to the city zoning code. Additionally, no billboards are permitted in the city. The only billboard was grandfathered in during a recent annexation. Corporations such as McDonald's have subdued their Golden Arches due to the code. The unincorporated areas still contain restaurants with the classic arches, but the heights of the signs have also been reduced. Many buildings in the area have Mediterranean and Spanish architectural themes, initially inspired in the area by Addison Mizner. The strict development code has resulted in several major thoroughfares without large signs or advertisements in the traveler's view; significant landscaping is in its place.
BocaSkyline2.jpg
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 29.1 square miles (75.4 km{^2}). 27.2 square miles (70.4 km{^2}) of this is land and 1.9 square miles (5.0 km{^2}) of it (6.63%) is water. Boca Raton is a 'principal city' (as defined by the Census Bureau) of the South Florida metropolitan area. Like most south Florida cities, Boca Raton has a water table that does not permit building basements, but there are several high points in the city, such as 4th Avenue which is aptly named "High Street". The highest point in this area is the guard shack at Camino Gardens, which is 24 ft (7.3 m) above sea level. The Boca Raton Hotel's Beach Club rests at 23 ft (7.0 m) above sea level.[13]
Several small tunnels run under roads in Boca, but the roads are built up several feet at these locations, or are located on dunes. Several of these tunnels are under State Road A1A at Spanish River Park, from the west side of the road where parking is available to beachgoers, to the east side of the road, which is where the beach is located. A1A is already higher than the surrounding land here due to sand dunes formed by erosion and other natural features.[13]
Climate
Boca Raton's climate barely qualifies as a Tropical rainforest climate (Koppen climate classification Af), as its driest month (December) averages 62.5mm of precipitation, narrowly meeting the minimum standard of 60mm in the driest month needed to qualify for that designation.
[hide]Climate data for Boca Raton
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 76
(24) 77
(25) 80
(27) 83
(28) 87
(31) 90
(32) 92
(33) 92
(33) 91
(33) 87
(31) 82
(28) 78
(26) 85
(29)
Average low {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 58
(14) 58
(14) 62
(17) 66
(19) 71
(22) 74
(23) 75
(24) 75
(24) 74
(23) 71
(22) 66
(19) 61
(16) 68
(20)
Precipitation inches (mm) 2.78
(70.6) 2.76
(70.1) 3.00
(76.2) 3.40
(86.4) 5.73
(145.5) 7.31
(185.7) 5.94
(150.9) 6.91
(175.5) 7.01
(178.1) 5.73
(145.5) 4.24
(107.7) 2.46
(62.5) 57.27
(1454.7)
Source: [14]
Demographics
Boca Raton Demographics
2010 Census Boca Raton Palm Beach County Florida
Total population 84392 1320134 18801310
Population, percent change, 2000 to 2010 +12.9% +16.7% +17.6%
Population density 2877.2/sq mi 670.2/sq mi 350.6/sq mi
White or Caucasian (including White Hispanic) 88.5% 73.5% 75.0%
(Non-Hispanic White or Caucasian) 79.1% 60.1% 57.9%
Black or African-American 5.2% 17.3% 16.0%
Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 11.9% 19.0% 22.5%
Asian 2.4% 2.4% 2.4%
Native American or Native Alaskan 0.2% 0.5% 0.4%
Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%
Two or more races (Multiracial) 1.6% 2.3% 2.5%
Some Other Race 2.0% 3.9% 3.6%
As of 2010, there were 44539 households, out of which 17.4% were vacant. As of 2000, 24.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.1% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.2% were non-families. 29.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.81.
In 2000, the city population was spread out with 18.9% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 26.7% from 45 to 64, and 19.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 95.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.8 males.
According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $67531, and the median income for a family was $92057.[15] Males had a median income of $52287 versus $33347 for females. The per capita income for the city was $45628. About 4.1% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.0% of those under age 18 and 4.9% of those age 65 or over.
According to Forbes, Boca Raton has three of the ten most expensive gated communities in the US The Royal Palm Yacht and Country Club holds the #1 spot, The Sanctuary takes #6, and Le Lac takes the #8 spot.[16]
As of 2000, English was spoken as a first language by 79.89% of the population, Spanish by 9.28%, French by 1.46%, Portuguese by 1.45%, French Creole by 1.29%, and Italian by 1.05% of the population. There is a substantial Jewish population in Boca Raton, and a small percentage of them add to the linguistic variety, with 0.36% of Boca Raton residents speaking Hebrew and 0.27% of the population speaking Yiddish at home.[17]
Culture and attractions
Boca Raton is known for its affluent social community and high income demographic. Boca Raton was the site of two now vanished amusement parks, Africa USA (19531961) and Ancient America (19531959). Africa USA was a wild animal park in which tourists rode a "Jeep Safari Train" through the park. There were no fences separating the animals from the tourists on the "Jeep Safari Train".[18] It is now the Camino Gardens subdivision one mile (1.6 km) west of the Boca Raton Hotel. A red wooden bridge from Africa USA can still be seen at the entrance to Camino Gardens. In the 1970s, peacocks could still be found in the subdivision, having escaped from the attraction. Ancient America was built surrounding a real Indian burial mound. Today, the mound is still visible within the Boca Marina & Yacht Club neighborhood on US 1 near Yamato Road.[19]
Boca Raton is home to the Caldwell Theatre Company, the longest-running professional theater in South Florida, celebrating its 34th season in the recently[when?] inaugurated Count de Hoernle Theatre on South Federal Highway.[20]
Boca Raton has beaches along its eastern shore, notably Red Reef Park,[21] where snorkeling from the shore can bring a visitor to a living reef without the expense of renting a boat. Also in the 20-acre (81000 m2) park is Gumbo Limbo, an Environmental Education Center. A small fee is charged to enter the park.
Crime
Crime statistics
According to the Department of Justice, the following offenses occurred in Boca Raton in 2006.[22] The Federal Bureau of Investigation assembles this data each year through the Uniform Crime Reporting Program.[23]
Murders and nonnegligent manslaughters 3
Forcible rapes 13
Robberies 72
Aggravated assaults 150
Total violent crimes 238
Burglaries 799
Larceny-thefts 2232
Motor vehicle thefts 170
Arson 2
Total property crimes 2956
Estimated population 88093
Technological issues
According to MessageLabs (an email security vendor), Boca Raton is the "spam capital of the world", being the source of a significant proportion of all spam generated worldwide, not surprising given the area's appeal, the personal fortunes of typical spammers, and the area's notorious past as a favorite of organized crime. According to the Miami Herald, the city has a long history of involvement in confidence tricks. Richard C. Breeden, former US Securities and Exchange Commission chairman, once called the city "the only coastal city in Florida where there are more sharks on land than in the water".[citation needed] In the keynote address to a computer security conference on June 8, 2004, Bruce Sterling described the city as the "Capone-Chicago of cyber fraud".
On July 22, 2004, Boca Raton resident Scott Levine was charged with the largest computer crime indictment in United States history. Federal prosecutors allege that Levine unlawfully accessed Acxiom, a database of consumer data, to steal detailed personal information of millions of people.
Organized crime
In 2007 it was reported that there were nine known gangs operating in Boca Raton.[24]
Boca Raton has a connection to the Mafia. Although not known for violent crime, it is a popular hangout for many suspected Mafia members. According to a number of US Federal indictments, as of June 2004, the Gambino family continues to operate in Boca Raton. The television show, The Sopranos, featured the city in its plot ("Boca" and "...To Save Us All From Satan's Power"), and Mafia Wife author Lynda Milito resides in Boca Raton.[25][26][27]
Politics
The City of Boca Raton has a Council-Manager form of government. Information about the City government is available at the city website.[28]
The city council, including Mayor Susan Whelchel, is nonpartisan. As of July 2011, incumbent Allen West, who represents the city in the United States Congress, is a Republican.
Economy
Office Depot, a supplier of office products and services, has its global headquarters on a 28-acre campus in the city.[29] The GEO Group, a company that operates prisons, also has its headquarters in Boca Raton based out of One Park Place.[30] Media companies American Media and FriendFinder Networks, hotel company Luxury Resorts and e-retailers Vitacost plus BMI Gaming are also based in Boca Raton.
Previously WR Grace and Company had its headquarters in unincorporated Palm Beach County, near Boca Raton.[31][32]
Top employers
According to the City's 2009 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[33] the top employers in the city are:
# Employer # of Employees
1 Florida Atlantic University 2776
2 Boca Raton Resort 2200
3 Office Depot 2100
4 Boca Raton Regional Hospital 2100
5 City of Boca Raton 1288
6 National Council on Compensation Insurance 872
7 Campus Management 750+
8 Lynn University 700
9 The Continental Group 640
10 IBM 600
Education
Public schools
Public education is provided and managed by The School District of Palm Beach County. Boca Raton is also home to several notable private and religious schools.
As of 2007, Boca Raton is served by four public high schools. Within the city's limits, Boca Raton Community High School serves the eastern part of the city. Spanish River Community High School serves the west-central part of the city limits and parts of unincorporated Boca Raton. Olympic Heights Community High School serves the western unincorporated areas. Finally, West Boca Raton Community High School serves the far-west unincorporated areas. Spanish River, Olympic Heights, and West Boca Raton also serve students from Delray Beach and Boynton Beach.[34]
The area is served by five public middle schools:
Boca Raton Community Middle School,
Don Estridge High Tech Middle School, a technology magnet school named for Don Estridge, the leader of a small group of engineers who developed the IBM Personal Computer in Boca Raton.
Eagles Landing Middle School
Loggers' Run Community Middle School
Omni Middle School
The area is served by twelve public elementary schools:
Addison Mizner Elementary (Founded in 1968. It is named after Addison Mizner.)
Boca Raton Elementary
Calusa Elementary
Coral Sunset Elementary
Del Prado Elementary
Hammock Pointe Elementary
JC Mitchell Elementary
Sandpiper Shores Elementary
Sunrise Park Elementary
Verde Elementary
Waters Edge Elementary
Whispering Pines Elementary
An alternative to the Palm Beach County Public Schools in Boca Raton is the Alexander D. Henderson University School is located on the Florida Atlantic University campus. AD Henderson University School (ADHUS) is organized as a unique and separate school district; it is not part of the Palm Beach County School System. Henderson School is recognized as Florida Atlantic University School District #72, under the College of Education's administrative oversight.
University schools in Florida are authorized to provide instruction for grades K-12 and university students, support university research efforts, and test educational reforms for Florida schools. ADHUS is a public school and thus does not charge tuition. It is open to children who reside in Palm Beach County or Broward County and admission is by lottery. Student characteristics of gender, race, family income and student ability are used to match the student population profile to that of the state.[35]
Private schools
Pope John Paul II High School is a Catholic school located in Boca Raton near Florida Atlantic University and Lynn University.
Hillel Day School of Boca Raton
Boca Raton Christian School
Pine Crest School, based in Fort Lauderdale, has a campus in Boca Raton.
Saint Jude Catholic School and Parish Saint Jude School and Parish is a Elementary and Middle School founded in 1985. The Parish also has a Preschool founded in 1995.
Saint Andrew's School
Pope John Paul II High School
Grandview Preparatory School is an independent college preparatory, nonsectarian, coeducational day school founded in 1997. Student enrollment is offered for Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 12.[36]
Donna Klein Jewish Academy
Boca Prep International School[37]
Saint Joan of Arc Catholic School and Church
Weinbaum Yeshiva High School
Summit Private School, a Montessori school[38]
Spanish River Christian
Saint Paul Lutheran School
Advent Lutheran School
Claremont Montessori School
American Heritage School
Higher education
Florida Atlantic University, founded in 1961, held its first classes in Boca Raton in 1964. FAU is a member of the State University System of Florida and is the largest university in Boca Raton. It has over 29000 students, 3555 of which are residential students, and a Division I athletics program.
Lynn University (originally founded as Marymount College, then renamed the College of Boca Raton in 1974, and finally Lynn University in 1991) is a four year co-educational institution renamed to honor the Lynn (Eugene & Christine) family who continue to be benefactors of the university.
Palm Beach State College has had a Boca Raton campus, adjacent to Florida Atlantic University, since 1971.
Digital Media Arts College, founded in 2001, offers bachelor's and master's degrees in computer animation and graphic design.
Everglades University
In recognition of the rapid growth of Boca Raton's universities, in particular Florida Atlantic University, the city of Boca Raton has recently been referred to as a "burgeoning college town." [1]
Libraries
The Boca Raton Public Library serves city of Boca Raton residents. A second municipal library building on Spanish River Boulevard west of I-95 was opened in January 2008.
The Glades Road Branch Library and the West Boca Branch Library serve Boca Raton residents who live outside the city limits. The West Boca Branch opened on February 20, 2009. It is located on State Road 7 just north of Yamato Road. The Glades Road Branch Library, formerly known as the Southwest County Regional Library, is located on 95th Street and Glades Road, between Lyons Road and State Road 7. It closed for renovations in early 2009 and reopened as the Glades Road Branch Library on May 29, 2010. County library card holders may use any of the sixteen branches in the Palm Beach County Library System and have access to many databases and downloadable e-books and audio books.
Transportation
Air
The Boca Raton Airport (BCT) is a general aviation airport located immediately adjacent to Florida Atlantic University and Interstate 95. It has a control tower which is manned from 0700 to 2300. The Boca Raton Airport is publicly owned and governed by a seven member Authority appointed by the City of Boca Raton and the Palm Beach County Commission.
Palm Beach International Airport (PBI) is located to the north near West Palm Beach.
Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport (FLL) is located to the south in Dania Beach.
Highways
Florida State Road A1A is a north-south road lying between the Intracoastal Waterway and the Atlantic Ocean.
US Highway 1 is a north-south highway passing through the city's downtown, commercial, and industrial districts in the eastern part of the city.
US Highway 441, also popularly known as State Road 7, is a north-south highway passing through commercial and residential districts west of the city limits.
Interstate 95 bisects the city from north to south with four interchanges serving Boca Raton.
Florida's Turnpike is a north-south highway passing through unincorporated Boca Raton, forming part of the city limits in the north, with one interchange at Glades Road.
Florida State Road 808 (Glades Road) is an east-west road between US 441 and US 1.
Other major east-west roads include Palmetto Park Road and Yamato Road.
Other major north-south roads include Military Trail and Powerline Road.
Rail
The Tri-Rail commuter rail system serves the city with its Boca Raton station located on the south side of Yamato Road just west of I-95.
CSX Transportation and the Florida East Coast Railway also serve the city.
Water
Long before any settlers arrived, the original 1870 government survey of the area[39] showed that just west of and parallel to the Atlantic Ocean's coastal dune was the "Boca Ratones Lagoon", which extended south for nine miles (14.5 km) from just north of the present location of Atlantic Avenue in Delray Beach. Along the southern half of the lagoon were three wide areas each called a "Lake", which are now named (north to south) Lake Rogers, Lake Wyman, and Lake Boca Raton. At the southeast end of the lagoon was a short protrusion toward the south which would become the Boca Raton Inlet after a sandbar at its mouth was removed. The lagoon and lakes were part of a half-mile (0.8 km) wide swamp, west of which was scrub land a mile (1.6 km) wide (part of the Atlantic coastal ridge) where the Florida East Coast Railway (1896) and Dixie Highway (1923) were built. To the west of the scrub was a half mile or wider swamp within which flowed north to south the "Prong of Hillsborough River", which is now the El Rio Canal. It now forms the eastern border of Florida Atlantic University and the Old Floresta neighborhood. The prong entered the "Hillsborough River" at the present eastern end of the straight portion of the Hillsboro Canal (dredged 191114), which is the southern city limits. The river flowed southeast in several channels along the western edge of the present Deerfield Island, formerly called Capone Island (named for Al Capone who owned it during the 1930s), which did not become an island until the Royal Palm Canal was dredged along its northern edge in 1961.[40][41] Flowing south from the lagoon to the river along the eastern edge of the 'island' was a "Small boat Pass into Hillsboro' River", also called the Little Hillsboro. The river continued due south about four and a half miles (7.2 km) just inland of the coastal dune until it emptied into the Atlantic Ocean at the "Hillsborough Bar", now the Hillsboro Inlet.
The lagoon was dredged in 189495 to form part of the Florida East Coast Canal from Jacksonville to Biscayne Bay with a minimum depth of 5 feet (1.5 m) and a minimum width of 50 feet (15.2 m).[42] After 1895, the lagoon and canal were sometimes called the Spanish River. Between 1930 and 1935 the canal was improved to 8*100 feet (2.4*30.5 m) by the federal government and renamed the Intracoastal Waterway. It was improved again between 1960 and 1965 to 10*125 feet (3*38.1 m).[43] All three versions were subject to shoaling which reduced their depths below the specified minimum. Forming part of the northern city limits is the C-15 canal, connecting the El Rio Canal to the Intracoastal Waterway.
Notable residents, past and present
Reed Alexander, actor
Jozy Altidore, soccer player
Carling Bassett-Seguso with husband Robert Seguso, both tennis players
Derek Bell, motor racing driver
Marc Bell, entrepreneur
Yuniesky Betancourt, baseball player
Jeanne Bice, founder of Quaker Factory[44]
Ian Bishop, former English soccer player
Ryland Blackinton, musician/guitarist for Cobra Starship
Jon Bon Jovi, singer & musician
Jason Bonham, rock and roll drummer & son of Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham
Ernest Borgnine, actor
Don Brewer, drummer for Grand Funk Railroad
Keith Byars, former football player
Jennifer Capriati, tennis player
Chris Carrabba, lead singer & guitarist of Dashboard Confessional
Cris Carter, All-Pro football player
Elena Dementieva, Russian tennis player
Dion DiMucci, Rock & Roll Hall of Fame member
Chris Evert, tennis player
Dr. Frank Field, TV Personality, and NYC Meteorologist for 5 Decades
Jeff Gordon, NASCAR racer
Ariana Grande, actress, model and singer
Taurean Green, basketball player
John Grogan, author of Marley & Me
Sebastien Grosjean, French tennis player
Megan Hauserman, model & reality television actress
John W. Henry, one of the owners of the Boston Red Sox
Scott Hirsch, boxing manager & former e-mail spammer[45]
Lisa Hunt, author & illustrator
Ryan Hunter-Reay, IndyCar Series driver
ydrnas Ilgauskas, basketball player
Khori Ivy, former football player
Dennis Kozlowski, former CEO of Tyco International
Bernhard Langer, golfer
Jesse Levine, tennis player
Scott Levine, computer criminal
Rush Limbaugh, Conservative radio talk show host
Marilyn Manson, shock rocker
Leonard Marshall, football player
Tucker Max, writer
Nicko McBrain, Iron Maiden drummer
Vince McMahon, professional wrestler & promoter
Scott Mersereau, professional football player for the New York Jets
Andy Mill, Olympic ski racer and ex-husband of Chris Evert
Corina Morariu, tennis player
Jaclyn Nesheiwat, beauty queen, fashion model
Paul Newman, entrepreneur
Greg Norman, golfer
Terrence Pegula, billionaire natural gas tycoon and owner of the Buffalo Sabres
Sabby Piscitelli, football player for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Maury Povich and wife, Connie Chung, tabloid and news media personalities
Morgan Pressel, golfer
Guillaume Raoux, tennis player[46]
Mark Richt, head football coach of the University of Georgia
Andy Roddick, tennis player
Pete Rose, baseball player
Frank Rosenthal, ex-Las Vegas casino owner & handicapper
Marion Ryan, 1950s British singer
Sheryl Sandberg, COO of Facebook
Stephanie Moulton Sarkis, psychotherapist and author
Ryan Shore, contemporary film composer
Vince Spadea, tennis player
Scott Stapp, lead singer for the rock band Creed
Howard Stelzer, avant-garde composer & founder of Intransitive Recordings
Horia Tecu, tennis player
Sahaj Ticotin, lead singer for the rock band Ra
Donald Trump, billionaire real estate mogul, has a second residence in Boca Raton
Danny Valencia, baseball player
Anna Tatishvili, tennis player
Brian Voss, bowler
Rashad Evans, former UFC Lightheavyweight Champion, current UFC fighter
Ernie Wise, UK comedian & half of the double act Morecambe and Wise had a holiday home here, where he spent much of his time after Morecambe's death in 1984.
Greater Boca Raton
A majority of postal Boca Raton lies outside of the actual city limits. This large unincorporated area to the west of the city limits is included in the Boca Raton mailing address and local telephone calling area. There are many large planned developments in the area, including gated communities, and a number of golf courses. This is a result in the later start of development in these areas, and the availability of large tracts of land. Many of these affluent communities are large enough to be designated as census-designated places, including Boca Del Mar and Boca Pointe, geographically in Central Boca Raton, and Avalon at Boca Raton, Boca Falls, Boca Winds, Cimarron, Hamptons at Boca Raton, Mission Bay, Loggers' Run, The Polo Club Boca Raton, Sandalfoot Cove, and Whisper Walk as West Boca Raton.
On November 2, 2004, the voters of the Via Verde Association, Waterside, Deerhurst Association (Boca South), Marina Del Mar Association, Rio Del Mar Association (both originally Boca Del Mar communities), and Heatherwood of Boca Raton Condominium Association approved annexation into the Boca Raton city limits, increasing the city land area to 29.6 square miles (77 km2).
Boca Raton in popular culture
Boca figures in many forms of popular culture.
Boca has been mentioned in many movies, including All the President's Men, Back to the Future, Bewitched, Cats & Dogs, Marley and Me, The Mexican, Mr. 3000, Music and Lyrics, A Perfect Murder, Wag the Dog, and Wonderland, and in many TV shows, such as American Dad!, American Dragon: Jake Long, Code Name: The Cleaner, Dexter, Lizzie McGuire, Nip/Tuck, The Golden Girls, Histeria!, Mad Men, MADtv, My Name Is Earl, The Nanny, Phil of the Future, Robot Chicken, The Sopranos, SpongeBob SquarePants, Two and a Half Men, The Venture Bros., Weeds, and Wipeout. These references usually have something to do with the large number of luxury resorts and condominiums in Florida, or the considerable number of retired persons residing in Florida (especially in the case of Seinfeld),.[47]
Boca Raton is almost idiomatically used for indicating retirement. For example, Fran Drescher's character in The Nanny is always pushing her parents to move to Boca, and Chelsea Handler frequently uses the city in reference to the elderly on her talk show, Chelsea Lately.
Development of Boca Raton features prominently in the 2008 Stephen Sondheim/John Weidman musical, Road Show, which centers on the lives of Addison Mizner and his brother Wilson Mizner.
Boca Raton has also been the stage and background for many movies filmed on location in Boca Raton, including Paper Lion (1968), Paper Moon (1973), Caddyshack (1980), Caddyshack II (1984), Where the Boys Are '84 (1984), Stella (1990), 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) and Sex Drive (2008).
References
^ "ZIP Code Lookup Search By City". United States Postal Service. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ Census
^ "Multimedia". USA Today.
^ Boca Raton Historical Society: Boca Raton's History
^ A.Word.A.Day Archives--disembogue - retrieved July 14, 2006
^ "Coastal History" (Archive). Internet Archive. Vone Research. 2004-03-08. Archived from the original on 2004-03-08. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
^ Boca Raton Historical Society, Spanish River Papers, 1.1 (January 1973).
^ Curl, Donald W. and John P. Johnson. Boca Raton; A Pictorial History. Virginia Beach, VA: The Donning Company, 1990. p. 52
^ Janie Gold, "Archer calls on Boca Raton to de-annex University Park", The Palm Beach Post, July 12, 1972, C1-C2.
^ http://www.miznerparkamp.com/
^ ab Google Earth
^ "Average weather for Boca Raton". Weather.com. May 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
^ US Census Bureau Fact Finder for Boca Raton
^ "Most Expensive Gated Communities In America 2004". Forbes.
^ Data Center Results
^ Virtual Tour of Arica USA. Retrieved August 27, 2006.
^ Ancient America: one of Florida's lost tourist attractions. lostparks.com. Retrieved August 27, 2006.
^ Caldwell Theatre Company
^ Red Reef Park
^ "2006 Crime in the United States, Table 8 (Florida)". United States Department of Justice. September 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2007-11-01.
^ "2006 Crime in the United States, Table 8, Data Declaration". United States Department of Justice. September 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2007-11-01.
^ "Where South Florida gangs are working", The Palm Beach Post.
^ Boca Raton, Florida - Mafia Wife Interview with Lynda Milita | Boca Raton
^ cbs4.com - Married To The Mob: Mafia Wife To Sue HBO
^ Lynda Milito from HarperCollins Publishers
^ City of Boca raton website
^ Office Depot Press Release.
^ "Contact Us." GEO Group. Retrieved on May 10, 2010.
^ "Grace Announces Relocation To Columbia, Maryland." WR Grace and Company. Retrieved on June 29, 2011. "The restructuring will entail a relocation of approximately 40 people, including senior management, from Grace's Boca Raton, Florida office to its Columbia, Maryland site. A few positions will be relocated to another Grace office in Cambridge, Massachusetts." and "Following the relocation, Grace will close its headquarters office at 1750 Clint Moore Road in Boca Raton, which currently employs approximately 130 people."
^ "Boca Raton city, Florida." US Census Bureau. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
^ City of Boca Raton
^ School District of Palm Beach County - High School Boundary Maps - Accessed December 17, 2007
^ FAU - AD Henderson University School
^ "Grandview Preparatory School"
^ "Boca Prep International School"
^ "Summit Private School"
^ Bureau of Land Management, General Land Office Records Florida, Townships 4648, Range 43
^ The Mysterious "Capone Island": Deerfield Island ParkPDF (597KB)
^ Deerfield Island - Spanish River PapersPDF (2.47MB)
^ A history of Florida's East Coast Canal: The Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway from Jacksonville to MiamiPDF (3.8 MB)
^ Aubrey Parkman, History of the waterways of the Atlantic coast of the United States, National Waterways Study, 1983, p.87.
^ Tuckwood, Jan (2011-06-13). "Queen of the 'Quackers' turned world on with her sparkle". Palm Beach Post. Retrieved 2011-06-27.
^ "Are Hurricanes Swamping Spammers?". 2004-09-15.
^ "ATP World Tour profile: Guillaume Raoux". Retrieved 2012-03-14.
^ Seinfeld, The Wizard, Air date: February 26, 1998 (Jerry: "Kramer, you can't live down here. This is where people come to die.")
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About Boston thanks to Wikipedia:
This article is about the capital of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Boston (disambiguation).
Boston
State Capital
City of Boston
Clockwise: Skyline of Back Bay seen from the Charles River, Fenway Park, Christian Science Church, Boston Common and the Downtown Crossing skyline, skyline of the Financial District seen from the Boston Harbor, and Massachusetts State House
Flag
Seal
Nickname(s): Beantown,[1] The Hub (of the Universe),[1] The Cradle of Liberty,[2] The Cradle of Modern America,[1] The Athens of America,[2] The Walking City[1]
Motto: Sicut patribus sit Deus nobis (Latin "As God was with our fathers, so may He be with us")
Location in Suffolk County, Massachusetts
Boston is located in United States
Boston
Location in the United States
Coordinates: 42{degrees}2128N 71{degrees}0342WCoordinates: 42{degrees}2128N 71{degrees}0342W
Country United States
State Massachusetts
County Suffolk
Settled September 17, 1630
Incorporated (city) March 4, 1822
Government
Type Strong mayor council
Mayor Thomas M. Menino (D)
Area[3][4][5]
State Capital 89.63 sq mi (232.14 km2)
Land 48.43 sq mi (125.43 km2)
Water 41.21 sq mi (106.73 km2)
Urban 1774 sq mi (4595 km2)
Metro 4511 sq mi (11683 km2)
CSA 10644 sq mi (27568 km2)
Elevation 141 ft (43 m)
Population [6][7][8][9]
State Capital 617594 ('10 census)
Density 12752/sq mi (4924/km2)
Urban 4032484 ('00 census)
Metro 4522858 ('08 est.)
CSA 7609358 ('09 est.)
Demonym Bostonian
Time zone EST (UTC-5)
Summer (DST) EDT (UTC-4)
ZIP code(s)
53 total ZIP codes:[10][show]
Area code(s) 617 and 857
FIPS code 25-07000
GNIS feature ID 0617565
Website www.cityofboston.gov
Boston (pronounced /bstn/ ( listen)) is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts,[11] and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region.[12] The city proper, covering just 48.43 square miles, had a population of 617594 according to the 2010 US Census.[6] Boston is also the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called Greater Boston, home to 4.5 million people and the tenth-largest metropolitan area in the country.[8] Greater Boston as a commuting region[13] is home to 7.6 million people, making it the fifth-largest Combined Statistical Area in the United States.[9][14]
In 1630, Puritan colonists from England founded the city on the Shawmut Peninsula.[15] During the late 18th century, Boston was the location of several major events during the American Revolution, including the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. Several early battles of the American Revolution, such as the Battle of Bunker Hill and the Siege of Boston, occurred within the city and surrounding areas. Through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the peninsula. After American independence was attained Boston became a major shipping port and manufacturing center,[15] and its rich history now helps attract many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone attracting over 20 million every year.[16] The city was the site of several firsts, including America's first public school, Boston Latin School (1635),[17] and the first subway system in the United States (1897).[18]
With many colleges and universities within the city and surrounding area, Boston is an international center of higher education and a center for medicine.[19] The city's economic base includes research, manufacturing, finance, and biotechnology.[20] As a result, the city is a leading finance center, ranking 12th in the Z/Yen top 20 Global Financial Centers.[21] The city was also ranked number one for innovation, both globally and in North America,[22] for a variety of reasons.[23][24] Boston has one of the highest costs of living in the United States,[25] though it remains high on world livability rankings, ranking third in the US and 36th globally.[26]
Contents
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Neighborhoods
2.2 Climate
3 Demographics
3.1 Accent
3.2 Crime
4 Economy
5 Culture
6 Media
7 Sports
8 Government
9 Education
10 Healthcare
11 Utilities
12 Transportation
13 Sister cities
14 See also
15 Notes
16 References
17 Further reading
18 External links
History
Main article: History of Boston
See also: Timeline of Boston history
Boston in 1772, compared with Boston in 1880
Boston was founded on September 17, 1630, by Puritan colonists from England.[15] The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony are sometimes confused with the Pilgrims, who founded Plymouth Colony ten years earlier in what is today Bristol County, Plymouth County, and Barnstable County, Massachusetts. The two groups, which differed in religious practice, are historically distinct. The separate colonies were not united until the formation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691.
The Shawmut Peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus and was surrounded by the waters of Massachusetts Bay and the Back Bay, an estuary of the Charles River. Several prehistoric Native American archaeological sites that were excavated in the city have shown that the peninsula was inhabited as early as 5000 BC.[27] Boston's early European settlers first called the area Trimountaine, but later renamed the town after Boston in Lincolnshire, England, from which several prominent colonists had emigrated. Massachusetts Bay Colony's original governor, John Winthrop, gave a famous sermon entitled "A Model of Christian Charity", popularly known as the "City on a Hill" sermon, which espoused the idea that Boston had a special covenant with God. (Winthrop also led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, which is regarded as a key founding document of the city.) Puritan ethics molded a stable and well-structured society in Boston. For example, shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans founded America's first public school, Boston Latin School (1635),[17] and America's oldest school in continuous existence, Roxbury Latin School (1645). Over the next 130 years, Boston participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their native allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British North America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid 18th century.[28]
Map showing a British tactical evaluation of Boston in 1775
In the 1770s, British attempts to exert more-stringent control on the thirteen coloniesprimarily via taxationled to the American Revolution.[15] The Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and several early battlesincluding the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Bostonoccurred in or near the city. During this period, Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride. After the Revolution, Boston had become one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports because of the city's consolidated seafaring tradition. Exports included rum, fish, salt, and tobacco.[29] During this era, descendants of old Boston families were regarded as the nation's social and cultural elites; they were later dubbed the Boston Brahmins.[30]
The Embargo Act of 1807, adopted during the Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812 significantly curtailed Boston's harbor activity. Although foreign trade returned after these hostilities, Boston's merchants had found alternatives for their capital investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the city's economy, and by the mid-19th century, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 20th century, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers and was notable for its garment production and leather-goods industries.[16] A network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region made for easy shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a dense network of railroads facilitated the region's industry and commerce. From the mid-19th to late 19th century, Boston flourished culturally. It became renowned for its rarefied literary culture and lavish artistic patronage. It also became a center of the abolitionist movement.[31]
View of Boston from Dorchester Heights, 1841
The city reacted strongly to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850,[32] which contributed to President Franklin Pierce's attempt to make an example of Boston after the Burns Fugitive Slave Case.[33][34]
Scollay Square in the 1880s
In 1822,[35] the citizens of Boston voted to change the official name from "the Town of Boston" to "the City of Boston", and on March 4, 1822, the people of Boston accepted the charter incorporating the City.[36] At the time Boston was chartered as a city, the population was about 46226, while the area of the city was only 4.7 square miles (12 km2).[36] In the 1820s, Boston's population began to swell, and the city's ethnic composition changed dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants. Irish immigrants dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period, especially following the Irish potato famine. By 1850, about 35000 Irish lived in Boston.[37] In the latter half of the 19th century, the city saw increasing numbers of Irish, Germans, Lebanese, Syrians,[38] French Canadians, and Russian and Polish Jews settle in the city. By the end of the 19th century, Boston's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrantsItalians inhabited the North End, Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown, and Russian Jews lived in the West End. Irish and Italian immigrants brought with them Roman Catholicism. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community,[39] and since the early 20th century, the Irish have played a major role in Boston politicsprominent figures include the Kennedys, Tip O'Neill, and John F. Fitzgerald.[30]
Haymarket Square, 1909
Between 1631 and 1890, the city tripled its physical size by land reclamationby filling in marshes, mud flats, and gaps between wharves along the waterfront[40] a process that Walter Muir Whitehill called "cutting down the hills to fill the coves". The largest reclamation efforts took place during the 19th century. Beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-acre (20 ha) mill pond that later became the Haymarket Square area. The present-day State House sits atop this lowered Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the South End, the West End, the Financial District, and Chinatown. After The Great Boston Fire of 1872, workers used building rubble as landfill along the downtown waterfront. During the mid-to-late 19th century, workers filled almost 600 acres (2.4 km2) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of Boston Common with gravel brought by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. Also, the city annexed the adjacent towns of South Boston (1804), East Boston (1836), Roxbury (1868), Dorchester (including present day Mattapan and a portion of South Boston) (1870), Brighton (including present day Allston) (1874), West Roxbury (including present day Jamaica Plain and Roslindale) (1874), Charlestown (1874), and Hyde Park (1912).[41][42] Other proposals, for the annexation of Brookline, Cambridge,[43] and Chelsea,[44][45] have been unsuccessful.
On January 15, 1919, in the North End neighborhood, a large molasses storage tank burst, and a wave of molasses rushed through the streets at an estimated 35 mph (56 km/h), killing 21 and injuring 150. The event has entered local folklore, known as The Boston Molasses Disaster.[46]
By the early and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere.[15] Boston responded by initiating various urban renewal projects under the direction of the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), which was established in 1957. In 1958, BRA initiated a project to improve the historic West End neighborhood. Extensive demolition was met with vociferous public opposition.[47] BRA subsequently reevaluated its approach to urban renewal in its future projects, including the construction of Government Center. In 1965, the first Community Health Center in the United States opened, the Columbia Point Health Center, in the Dorchester neighborhood. It mostly served the massive Columbia Point public housing complex adjoining it, which was built in 1953. The health center is still in operation and was rededicated in 1990 as the Geiger-Gibson Community Health Center.[48]
The John F. Kennedy Library, located on the Columbia Point peninsula, 2007
By the 1970s, the city's economy boomed after 30 years of economic downturn. A large number of high rises were constructed in the Financial District and in Boston's Back Bay during this time period. This boom continued into the mid-1980s and later began again. Boston now has the second largest skyline in the Northeast (after New York) in terms of the number of buildings reaching a height of over 500 feet (150 m). Hospitals such as Massachusetts General Hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Brigham and Women's Hospital lead the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Schools such as Boston University, the Harvard Medical School, Northeastern University, Wentworth Institute of Technology and Boston Conservatory attract students to the area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over desegregation busing, which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s. In 1984, the City of Boston gave control of the Columbia Point public housing complex to a private developer, who redeveloped and revitalized the property from its rundown and dangerous state into an attractive residential mixed-income community called Harbor Point Apartments, which opened in 1988 and was completed by 1990. It was the first federal housing project to be converted to private, mixed-income housing in the United States, and served as a model for the federal HUD HOPE VI public housing revitalization program that began in 1992.[49]
The North End has been experiencing gentrification since the completion of the Big Dig in the early 2000s (decade), which moved the elevated Central Artery freeway mostly into tunnels. This has also been changing the traditional Italian American culture of the area.[50]
In the early 21st century, the city has become an intellectual, technological, and political center. It has, however, experienced a loss of regional institutions,[51] which included the acquisition of The Boston Globe by The New York Times, and the loss to mergers and acquisitions of local financial institutions such as FleetBoston Financial, which was acquired by Charlotte-based Bank of America in 2004. Boston-based department stores Jordan Marsh and Filene's have both been merged into the New Yorkbased Macy's. Boston has also experienced gentrification in the latter half of the 20th century,[52] with housing prices increasing sharply since the 1990s.[25] Living expenses have risen, and Boston has one of the highest costs of living in the United States,[53] and was ranked the 99th most expensive major city in the world in a 2008 survey of 143 cities.[54] Despite cost of living issues, Boston ranks high on livability ratings, ranking 36th worldwide in quality of living in 2011 in a survey of 221 major cities.[55]
Geography
Simulated-color satellite image of the Boston area taken on NASA's Landsat 3
Owing to its early founding, Boston is very compact. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 89.6 square miles (232.1 km2)48.4 square miles (125.4 km2) (54.0%) of land and 41.2 square miles (106.7 km2) (46.0%) of water. Boston is the country's third most densely populated city that is not a part of a larger city's metropolitan area.[56] This is largely attributable to the rarity of annexation by New England towns. Boston is surrounded by the "Greater Boston" region and is bordered by the cities and towns of Winthrop, Revere, Chelsea, Everett, Somerville, Cambridge, Watertown, Newton, Brookline, Needham, Dedham, Canton, Milton, and Quincy. The Charles River separates Boston proper from Cambridge, Watertown, and the neighborhood of Charlestown. To the east lies Boston Harbor and the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area (BHINRA). This includes part of the city's territory, specifically Calf Island, Gallops Island, Great Brewster Island, Green Island, Little Brewster Island, Little Calf Island, Long Island, Lovells Island, Middle Brewster Island, Nixes Mate, Outer Brewster Island, Rainsford Island, Shag Rocks, Spectacle Island, The Graves, and Thompson Island. The Neponset River forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the city of Quincy and the town of Milton.[57] The Mystic River separates Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett, and Chelsea Creek and Boston Harbor separate East Boston from Boston proper.[58] Boston's official elevation, as measured at Logan International Airport, is 19 ft (5.8 m) above sea level.[59] The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill at 330 ft (101 m) above sea level, and the lowest point is at sea level.[60] Boston is the only state capital in the contiguous United States with an ocean coastline.
The headquarters of the Church of Christ, Scientist in the Back Bay is dominated by a reflecting pool. The tall buildings in the background are the Prudential Tower and 111 Huntington Avenue.
Much of the Back Bay and South End neighborhoods are built on reclaimed landall of the earth from two of Boston's three original hills, the "Trimountain", was used as landfill material. Pemberton Hill, which would become Pemberton Square in the Government Center neighborhood, and Mount Vernon, were leveled completely. Only Beacon Hillthe smallest of the three original hillsremains partially intact; only half of its height was cut down for landfill. Tremont Street is named after the three hills. The downtown area and immediate surroundings consist mostly of low-rise brick or stone buildings, with many older buildings in the Federal style. Several of these buildings mix in with modern high-rises, notably in the Financial District, Government Center, the South Boston waterfront, and Back Bay, which includes many prominent landmarks such as the Boston Public Library, Christian Science Center, Copley Square, Newbury Street, and New England's two tallest buildingsthe John Hancock Tower and the Prudential Center.[61]
The iconic Boston brownstones that dominate the Back Bay area
Copley Square
Near the John Hancock Tower is the old John Hancock Building with its prominent weather forecast beaconthe color of the illuminated light gives an indication of weather to come: "steady blue, clear view; flashing blue, clouds are due; steady red, rain ahead; flashing red, snow instead". (In the summer, flashing red indicates instead that a Red Sox game has been rained out.) Smaller commercial areas are interspersed among single-family homes and wooden/brick multi-family row houses. Currently, the South End Historic District remains the largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighborhood in the US[62] Along with downtown, the geography of South Boston was particularly impacted by the Central Artery/Tunnel (CA/T) Project (or the "Big Dig"). The unstable reclaimed land in South Boston posed special problems for the project's tunnels. In the downtown area, the CA/T Project allowed for the removal of the unsightly elevated Central Artery and the incorporation of new green spaces and open areas.
Boston Common seen from the Prudential Skywalk Observatory, an observation deck on the 50th floor of the Prudential Tower[63]
Boston Common, located near the Financial District and Beacon Hill, is the oldest public park in the United States.[64] Along with the adjacent Boston Public Garden, it is part of the Emerald Necklace, a string of parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted to encircle the city. Jamaica Pond, part of the Emerald Necklace, is the largest body of freshwater in the city. Franklin Park, which is also part of the Emerald Necklace, is the city's largest park and houses the Franklin Park Zoo.[65] Another major park is the Esplanade, located along the banks of the Charles River. The Hatch Shell, an outdoor concert venue, is located adjacent to the Charles River Esplanade. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks and beaches located near Castle Island (not part of the BHINRA, and now connected to the mainland); in Charlestown; and along the Dorchester, South Boston, and East Boston shorelines.
Neighborhoods
Main article: Neighborhoods in Boston
Boston is sometimes called a "city of neighborhoods" because of the profusion of diverse subsections. There are 21 official neighborhoods in Boston used by the city.[66] These neighborhoods include: Allston/Brighton, Back Bay, Bay Village, Beacon Hill, Charlestown, Chinatown/Leather District, Dorchester, Downtown/Financial District, East Boston, Fenway/Kenmore, Hyde Park, Jamaica Plain, Mattapan, Mission Hill, North End, Roslindale, Roxbury, South Boston, South End, West End, and West Roxbury.
Boston skyline from the north side of the Charles River
Boston as seen from the 26th floor of Student Village II at Boston University
Climate
Boston has a climate that is continental in nature but with maritime influences owing to its coastal location, a phenomenon common to coastal southern New England. The climate is either classified as a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa), using the 3 {degrees}C (26.6 {degrees}F) isotherm of the original Koppen scheme, or a humid continental climate (Koppen Dfb with areas of Dfa), using the 0 {degrees}C (32 {degrees}F) isotherm preferred by some climatologists.
Summers are typically warm, rainy, and humid, while winters are cold, windy, and snowy. Spring and fall are usually mild, but conditions are widely varied, depending on wind direction and jet stream positioning. Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore affect Boston, minimizing the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.
Boston's skyline in the background, with fall foliage in the foreground
The hottest month is July, with a mean temperature of 73.9 {degrees}F (23.3 {degrees}C). The coldest month is January, with a mean of 29.3 {degrees}F (1.5 {degrees}C). Periods exceeding 90 {degrees}F (32 {degrees}C) in summer and below 10 {degrees}F (12 {degrees}C) in winter are not uncommon but rarely extended, with about 13 days per year seeing the former extreme,[67] and the most recent subzero reading occurring on January 24, 2011.[68] Extremes have ranged from 18 to 104 {degrees}F (-28 to 40 {degrees}C), recorded on February 9, 1934 and July 4, 1911, respectively.[68]
Boston's coastal location on the North Atlantic, although it moderates temperatures, also makes the city very prone to Nor'easter weather systems that can produce much snow and rain.[69] The city averages 42.5 inches (1080 mm) of precipitation a year, with 41.8 inches (106 cm) of snowfall a year. Snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city (especially north and west of the city)away from the warming influence of the ocean.[70] Most snowfall occurs from December through March. There is usually little or no snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October.[71][72]
Fog is prevalent, particularly in spring and early summer, and the occasional tropical storm or hurricane can threaten the region, especially in early autumn. Due to its situation along the North Atlantic, the city is often subjected to sea breezes, especially in the late spring, when water temperatures are still quite cold and temperatures at the coast can be more than 20 {degrees}F (11 {degrees}C) colder than a few miles inland, sometimes dropping by that amount near midday.[73][74] From May to September, the city experiences thunderstorms that are occasionally severe; large hail, damaging winds and heavy downpours accompany such severe events. Although downtown Boston has never been struck by a violent tornado, the city itself has seen its fair share of tornado warnings, but damaging storms are more common to areas north, west, and northwest of the city.
[hide]Climate data for Boston (1981-2010 normals)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 72
(22) 70
(21) 89
(32) 94
(34) 97
(36) 100
(38) 104
(40) 102
(39) 102
(39) 90
(32) 83
(28) 76
(24) 104
(40)
Average high {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 36.3
(2.4) 39.2
(4.0) 45.9
(7.7) 56.1
(13.4) 66.4
(19.1) 76.4
(24.7) 81.8
(27.7) 80.1
(26.7) 72.8
(22.7) 61.9
(16.6) 52.0
(11.1) 41.7
(5.4) 59.22
(15.12)
Average low {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 22.3
(5.4) 24.8
(4.0) 31.2
(0.4) 40.7
(4.8) 50.0
(10.0) 59.6
(15.3) 65.5
(18.6) 64.7
(18.2) 57.5
(14.2) 46.6
(8.1) 38.1
(3.4) 28.3
(2.1) 44.11
(6.73)
Record low {degrees}F ({degrees}C) 13
(25) 18
(28) 8
(22) 13
(11) 31
(1) 41
(5) 50
(10) 46
(8) 34
(1) 25
(4) 2
(19) 17
(27) 18
(28)
Precipitation inches (mm) 3.36
(85.3) 3.25
(82.6) 4.32
(109.7) 3.74
(95) 3.48
(88.4) 3.68
(93.5) 3.43
(87.1) 3.29
(83.6) 3.44
(87.4) 3.94
(100.1) 3.99
(101.3) 3.78
(96) 43.7
(1110)
Snowfall inches (cm) 14.0
(35.6) 11.3
(28.7) 7.8
(19.8) 1.9
(4.8) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 1.3
(3.3) 8.8
(22.4) 45.1
(114.6)
Avg. precipitation days ( 0.01 in) 11.3 9.8 11.6 11.2 12.0 10.8 9.6 9.4 8.6 9.4 10.6 11.6 125.9
Avg. snowy days ( 0.1 in) 6.8 5.3 4.2 .8 0 0 0 0 0 .1 .8 4.6 22.6
Mean monthly sunshine hours 164.3 169.5 213.9 228.0 266.6 288.0 300.7 275.9 237.0 207.7 144.0 142.6 2638.2
Source: NOAA [75] HKO (sun, 19611990),[76] ThreadEx (records, 18722009)[68]
Demographics
Per capita income in the Greater Boston area, by US Census block group, 2000. The dashed line shows the boundary of the City of Boston.
Historical populations
Year Pop. {+/-}%
1722 10567
1765 15520 +46.9%
1790 18320 +18.0%
1800 24937 +36.1%
1810 33787 +35.5%
1820 43298 +28.1%
1830 61392 +41.8%
1840 93383 +52.1%
1850 136881 +46.6%
1860 177840 +29.9%
1870 250526 +40.9%
1880 362839 +44.8%
1890 448477 +23.6%
1900 560892 +25.1%
1910 670585 +19.6%
1920 748060 +11.6%
1930 781188 +4.4%
1940 770816 1.3%
1950 801444 +4.0%
1960 697197 13.0%
1970 641071 8.1%
1980 562994 12.2%
1990 574283 +2.0%
2000 589141 +2.6%
2010 617594 +4.8%
* = population estimate.
Source: United States Census records and Population Estimates Program data.[77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87]
According to the 2000 United States Census,[88] there were 589141 people, 239528 households, and 115212 families residing in the city. When including the Greater Boston region, rather than just the city itself, the total is approximately 4.5 million. Boston's population density was 12166 people per square mile (4697/km2). There were 251935 housing units at an average density of 5203 per square mile (2009/km2). The 2010 US Census population count for the city was 617594,[6] a 4.8% increase over 2000. During weekdays, the population of Boston can grow during the daytime to over 1.2 million, and can reach as many as 2 million during special events. This fluctuation of people is caused by hundreds of thousands of suburban residents who travel to the city for work, education, health care, and special events.[89]
In the city, the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 16.2% from 18 to 24, 35.8% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males.[90] There were 239528 households, of which 22.7% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 27.4% were married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.9% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.17.[90]
The median income for a household in the city was $39629, and the median income for a family was $44151. Males had a median income of $37435 versus $32421 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families are below the poverty line. Of the total population, 25.6% of those under the age of 18 and 18.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[91]
In 1950, whites represented 94.7% of Boston's population.[92] From the 1950s to the end of the 20th century, the proportion of non-Hispanic whites in the city declined; in 2000, non-Hispanic whites made up 49.5% of the city's population, making the city majority-minority for the first time. However, in recent years the city has experienced significant gentrification, in which affluent whites have moved into formerly non-white areas. Meanwhile, the city's black population has decreased. In 2006, the US Census Bureau estimated that non-Hispanic whites again formed a slight majority. But as of 2010, in part due to the housing crash, as well as increased efforts to make more affordable housing more available the minority population has rebounded. This may also have to do with an increased Latino population and more clarity surrounding US Census statistics, which indicate a Non-Hispanic White population of 47 percent (some reports give slightly lower figures).[93][94][95]
According to the 2010 US Census, the racial composition of Boston was as follows:[96]
White: 53.9% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 47.0%)
Black or African American: 22.4%
Native American: 0.2%
Asian: 8.9%
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.0%
Some other race: 1.6%
Two or more races: 2.4%
Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 17.5%
People of Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in the city, making up 15.8% of the population, followed by Italians, accounting for 8.3% of the population. People of West Indian ancestry are another sizable group, at 6.4%,[97] about half of whom are of Haitian ancestry. Some neighborhoods, such as Dorchester, have received an influx of people of Vietnamese ancestry in recent decades. Neighborhoods such as Jamaica Plain and Roslindale have experienced a growing number of Dominican Americans. The city and greater area also has a large immigration population of South Asians, including the tenth-largest Indian community in the country, with an estimated 62598 Indians.[98]
The city also has a sizable Jewish population with an estimated 25000 Jews within the city and 227000 within the Boston metro area; the number of congregations in Boston is estimated at 22.[99][100] The adjacent communities of Brookline and Newton are both approximately one-third Jewish.[99]
Accent
Main article: Boston accent
The "Boston accent" is widely parodied in the US and the Kennedy family is often associated with it, though the Kennedys' speech is generally considered more an idiosyncratic mix of various accents such as Boston Brahman.[101][102][103] It is non-rhotic (ie, drops the "r" sound at the end of syllables unless the next syllable starts with a vowel) and traditionally uses a "broad a" in certain words, so "bath" can sound like "bahth".[104] Boston English has many dialect words, such as "frappe", meaning "milkshake made with ice cream" (as opposed to other milkshakes).[105] The accent originated in the non-rhotic speech of 17th century East Anglia and Lincolnshire.[106]
Crime
A Boston Police cruiser on Beacon Street
The city has seen a great reduction in violent crime since the early 1990s. Boston's low crime rate over the past decade or so has been credited to the Boston Police Department's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as involvement from the United States Attorney and District Attorney's offices. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the "Boston Miracle". Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100000 people) to just 31not one of them a juvenilein 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100000).[107]
In the 2000s (decade), however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared with the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 64 in 2004, and 75 in 2005. Although the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime.[107][108][109]
Economy
See also: Major companies in Greater Boston
Distribution of the Boston metropolitan NECTA labor force, 2004 annual averages[110]
Encompassing $363 billion, the Greater Boston metropolitan area has the sixth-largest economy in the country and 12th-largest in the world.[111]
Boston's colleges and universities have a significant effect on the regional economy, with students contributing an estimated $4.8 billion annually to the city's economy.[112] Boston's schools are major employers and attract industries to the city and surrounding region. Boston is home to a number of technology companies and is a hub for biotechnology, with the Milken Institute rating Boston as the top life sciences cluster in the country.[113] Boston also receives the highest absolute amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health of all cities in the United States.[114]
Tourism comprises a large part of Boston's economy. In 2004, tourists spent $7.9 billion and made the city one of the ten-most-popular tourist locations in the country.[16] Because of Boston's status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government are another major component of the city's economy.[16] The city is also a major seaport along the United States' East Coast and is also the oldest continuously operated industrial and fishing port in the Western Hemisphere.[115]
Some of the other important industries are financial services, especially mutual funds and insurance.[16] Boston-based Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States. The city is home to the regional headquarters of Bank of America and Sovereign Bank, and it is a center for venture capital firms. State Street Corporation, which specializes in asset management and custody services, is based in the city. A 2008 study ranked Boston among the top 10 cities in the world for a career in finance.[116] Boston is a printing and publishing center Houghton Mifflin is headquartered within the city, along with Bedford-St. Martin's Press, Beacon Press, and Little, Brown and Company. Pearson PLC publishing units also employ several hundred people in Boston. The city is home to three major convention centersthe Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay, and the Seaport World Trade Center and Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront.
Some of the major companies headquartered within the city are the Liberty Mutual insurance company, Gillette (now owned by Procter & Gamble), and New Balance. Boston is also home to management consulting firms The Boston Consulting Group and Bain & Company, as well as the private equity group Bain Capital.[117] Other major companies are located outside the city, especially along Route 128,[118] which serves as the center of the region's high-tech industry. In 2006, Boston and its metropolitan area ranked as the fourth-largest cybercity in the United States with 191700 high-tech jobs. Only NYC Metro, DC Metro, and Silicon Valley have larger high-tech sectors.[119]
Boston is classified as an "incipient global city" by a 2004 study group at Loughborough University in England.[120] Classified as an Alpha-global city by GaWC studies, comparable to Vienna, Dublin, or Istanbul, Boston is placed among the top 30 cities in the world.[citation needed]
Culture
Main article: Culture in Boston
See also: Annual events in Boston, List of arts organizations in Boston, and Sites of interest in Boston
The Old State House was the site of the Boston Massacre.
Symphony Hall, home of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Boston Pops Orchestra
Boston shares many cultural roots with greater New England, including a dialect of the non-rhotic Eastern New England accent known as Boston English, and a regional cuisine with a large emphasis on seafood, salt, and dairy products. Irish Americans are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions. Boston also has its own collection of neologisms known as Boston slang.[121]
Faneuil Hall, a well-known stop on the Freedom Trail, sometimes called "the Cradle of Liberty" because of its role in the American Revolution[122]
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
The city has a number of ornate theatres, including the Cutler Majestic Theatre, Boston Opera House, Citi Performing Arts Center, the Colonial Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre. Renowned performing-arts organizations include the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Boston Ballet, Boston Early Music Festival, Boston Lyric Opera Company, OperaBoston, and the Handel and Haydn Society (one of the oldest choral companies in the United States).[123] The city is also a major center for contemporary classical music, with a number of performing groups, some of which are associated with the city's conservatories and universities. There are also many major annual events such as First Night, which occurs on New Year's Eve, the annual Boston Arts Festival at Christopher Columbus Waterfront Park, Italian summer feasts in the North End honoring Catholic saints, and several events during the Fourth of July period. These events include the week-long Harborfest festivities[124] and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the Charles River.[125]
Because of the city's prominent role in the American Revolution, several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the Boston National Historical Park. Many are found along the Freedom Trail, which is marked by a red line of bricks embedded in the ground. The city is also home to several prominent art museums, including the Museum of Fine Arts and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. In December 2006, the Institute of Contemporary Art moved from its Back Bay location to a new contemporary building designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro located in the Seaport District. The University of Massachusetts campus at Columbia Point houses the John F. Kennedy Library. The Boston Athenaeum (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States),[126] Boston Children's Museum, Bull & Finch Pub (whose building is known from the television show Cheers), Museum of Science, and the New England Aquarium are within the city.
Quincy Market, part of the larger Faneuil Hall festival marketplace
Boston is also one of the birthplaces of the hardcore punk genre of music. Boston musicians have contributed significantly to this music scene over the years (see also Boston hardcore). Boston neighborhoods were home to one of the leading local third wave ska and ska punk scenes in the 1990s, led by bands such as The Mighty Mighty Bosstones and The Allstonians. The 1980s' hardcore punk-rock compilation This Is Boston, Not LA highlights some of the bands that built the genre. Several nightclubs, such as The Channel, Bunnratty's in Allston, and The Rathskeller, were renowned for showcasing both local punk-rock bands and those from farther afield. All of these clubs are now closed. Many were razed or converted during recent gentrification.[127]
Boston has been a noted religious center from its earliest days. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston serves nearly 300 parishes and is based in the Cathedral of the Holy Cross (1875) in the South End, while the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts, with the Cathedral Church of St. Paul (1819) as its episcopal seat, serves just under 200 congregations. Two Protestant faiths are headquartered in Boston: Unitarian Universalism, with its headquarters on Beacon Hill, and the Christian Scientists, headquartered in Back Bay at the Mother Church (1894). The oldest church in Boston is King's Chapel, the city's first Anglican church, founded in 1686 and converted to Unitarianism in 1785. Other notable churches include Christ Church (better known as Old North Church, 1723), the oldest church building in the city, Trinity Church (1733), Park Street Church (1809), First Church in Boston (congregation founded 1630, building raised 1868), Old South Church (1874), and Basilica and Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help on Mission Hill (1878).
Media
Main article: Media in Boston
The Boston Globe (owned by The New York Times Company) and the Boston Herald are two of Boston's major daily newspapers. The city is also served by other publications such as The Boston Phoenix, Boston magazine, The Improper Bostonian, Boston's Weekly Dig, and the Boston edition of Metro. The Christian Science Monitor, headquartered in Boston, was formerly a worldwide daily newspaper but ended publication of daily print editions in 2009, switching to continuous online and weekly magazine format publications.[128] The Boston Globe also releases a teen publication to the city's public high schools. The newspaper Teens in Print or TiP is written by the city's teens and delivered quarterly within the school year.[129]
The city's growing Latino population has given rise to a number of local and regional Spanish-language newspapers. These include El Planeta (owned by The Boston Phoenix), El Mundo, and La Semana. Siglo21, with its main offices in nearby Lawrence, is also widely distributed.
Boston has the largest broadcasting market in New England, with the Boston radio market being the eleventh largest in the United States.[130] Several major AM stations include talk radio WRKO 680 AM, sports/talk station WEEI 850 AM, and news radio WBZ 1030 AM. A variety of FM radio formats serve the area, as do NPR stations WBUR and WGBH. College and university radio stations include WERS (Emerson), WHRB (Harvard), WUMB (UMass Boston), WMBR (MIT), WZBC (Boston College), WMFO (Tufts University), WBRS (Brandeis University), WTBU (Boston University, campus and web only), WRBB (Northeastern University) and WMLN (Curry College).
The Boston television DMA, which also includes Manchester, New Hampshire, is the seventh largest in the United States.[131] The city is served by stations representing every major American network, including WBZ 4 and its sister station WSBK 38 (the former with CBS, the latter an independent, nonaffiliated station), WCVB 5 (ABC), WHDH 7 (NBC), WFXT 25 (Fox), WUNI 27 (Univision), WBIN 50 (MyNetworkTV), and WLVI 56 (The CW). Boston is also home to PBS station WGBH 2, a major producer of PBS programs, which also operates WGBX 44. Most Boston television stations have their transmitters in nearby Needham and Newton along the Route 128 corridor.[132]
Sports
Main article: Sports in Boston
Boston has teams in the four major North American professional sports leagues, and has won 33 championships in these leagues, as of 2011.[133]
Fenway Park
The Boston Red Sox, a founding member of the American League of Major League Baseball in 1901, play their home games at Fenway Park, near Kenmore Square in the Fenway section of Boston. Built in 1912, it is the oldest sports arena or stadium in active use in the United States among the four major professional American sports leagues, encompassing Major League Baseball, the National Football League, National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League.[134] Boston was also the site of the first game of the first modern World Series, in 1903. The series was played between the AL Champion Boston Americans and the NL champion Pittsburgh Pirates.[135][136] Persistent reports that the team was known in 1903 as the "Boston Pilgrims" appear to be unfounded.[137] Boston's first professional baseball team was the Red Stockings, one of the charter members of the National Association in 1871, and of the National League in 1876. The team played under that name until 1883, under the name Beaneaters until 1911, and under the name Braves from 1912 until they moved to Milwaukee after the 1952 season. Since 1966 they have played in Atlanta as the Atlanta Braves.[138]
Celtics in a game versus the Miami Heat at the TD Garden
The TD Garden (formerly called the FleetCenter) is adjoined to North Station and is the home of three major league teams: the Boston Blazers of the National Lacrosse League, the 2011 Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League; and the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association. The arena seats 18624 for basketball games and 17565 for ice hockey games. The Bruins were the first American member of the National Hockey League and an Original Six franchise.[139] The Boston Celtics were founding members of the Basketball Association of America, one of the two leagues that merged to form the NBA.[140] The Celtics have the distinction of having won more championships than any other NBA team, with seventeen.[141]
While they have played in suburban Foxborough since 1971, the New England Patriots were founded in 1960 as the Boston Patriots, changing their name in 1971 to better reflect its status as New England's team. A charter member of the American Football League, the team joined the National Football League in 1970. The team has won the Super Bowl three times, in 2001, 2003, and 2004.[142] They share Gillette Stadium with the New England Revolution of Major League Soccer. The Boston Breakers of Women's Professional Soccer, which formed in 2009, play their home games at Harvard Stadium in Allston.[143]
Gillette Stadium
Boston's many colleges and universities are active in college athletics. Four NCAA Division I members play their games in the cityBoston College (Atlantic Coast Conference), Boston University (America East Conference), Harvard University (Ivy League), and Northeastern University (Colonial Athletic Association). Of the four, only Boston College participates in college football at the highest level, the Football Bowl Subdivision. Harvard participates in the second-highest level, the Football Championship Subdivision. Boston University and Northeastern University do not have football teams. All but Harvard belong to the Hockey East conference; Harvard belongs to the ECAC in hockey. The hockey teams of these four universities meet every year in a four-team tournament known as the "Beanpot Tournament", which is played at the TD Garden over two Monday nights in February.[144]
One of the best known sporting events in the city is the Boston Marathon, the 42.195-kilometre (26.219 mi) run from Hopkinton to Copley Square in the Back Bay which is the world's oldest annual marathon run.[145] It is run on Patriots' Day in April and always coincides with a Red Sox home baseball game that starts at 11:05 am, the only MLB game all year to start before noon local time.[146] Another major event held annually in the city is the Head of the Charles Regatta rowing competition on the Charles River.[147]
Club League Sport Venue Established Championships
Boston Bruins NHL Hockey TD Garden 1924 6 Stanley Cups
Boston Celtics NBA Basketball TD Garden 1946 17 NBA Titles
Boston Red Sox MLB Baseball Fenway Park 1901 7 World Series Titles
12 AL Pennants
New England Patriots NFL Football Gillette Stadium 1960 3 Super Bowl Titles
7 AFC Championships
New England Revolution MLS Soccer Gillette Stadium 1995 1 US Open Cup
1 Superliga
Boston Blazers NLL Lacrosse (Indoor) TD Garden 2008 None
Boston Breakers WPS Soccer Harvard Stadium 2001 None
Boston Cannons MLL Lacrosse (Outdoor) Harvard Stadium 2001 1 Steinfeld Cup
Boston Aztec WPSL Soccer Amesbury Sports Park 2005 1 WPSL Title
Boston Demons USAFL Australian Rules Football Ipswich River Park 1997 2 National Championships
Boston Militia WFA Football Dilboy Stadium 2008 2 Championships
New England Riptide NPF Softball Martin Softball Field 2004 1 Cowles Cup
Government
See also: Boston City Hall, Boston Emergency Medical Services, Boston Finance Commission, Boston Fire Department, List of mayors of Boston, and List of members of Boston City Council
Thomas M. Menino, the current Mayor of Boston
The Massachusetts State House, described by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. in an 1858 collection of essays as "the Hub of the Solar System"[1]
Boston has a strong mayor council government system in which the mayor is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor is elected to a four-year term by plurality voting. The current mayor of Boston is Thomas Menino. He was elected in 1993 and was reelected in 2009 for a fifth term, the longest in Boston history. Boston City Council is elected every two years. There are nine district seats, each elected by the residents of that district through plurality voting, and four at-large seats. Each voter casts up to four votes for at-large councilors, with no more than one vote per candidate. The candidates with the four highest vote totals are elected. The president of the city council is elected by the councilors from within themselves. The school committee for the Boston Public Schools is appointed by the mayor.[148] The Boston Redevelopment Authority and the Zoning Board of Appeals (a seven-person body appointed by the mayor) share responsibility for land-use planning.[149]
Boston City Hall
In addition to city government, numerous commissions and state authoritiesincluding the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, the Boston Public Health Commission, and the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)play a role in the life of Bostonians. As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in state politics. The city has several properties relating to the United States federal government, including the John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building and the Thomas P. O'Neill Federal Building.[150] Boston also serves as the home of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit and of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts; Boston is the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (the First District of the Federal Reserve).
Federally, Boston is part of Massachusetts's 8th and 9th congressional districts,[151] represented respectively by Mike Capuano, elected in 1998, and Stephen Lynch, elected in 2001; both are Democrats. The state's senior member of the United States Senate is Democrat John Kerry, elected in 1984. The state's junior member of the United States Senate is Republican Scott Brown was elected in 2010 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of long-time Democratic senator Ted Kennedy.
Voter Registration and Party Enrollment as of October 15, 2008[152]
Party Number of Voters Percentage
Democratic 209710 55.04%
Republican 27541 7.23%
Unaffiliated 140601 36.90%
Minor Parties 3161 0.83%
Total 381013 100%
Education
See also: List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston
Map of colleges and universities within Boston's Inner Core
Harvard University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Boston's reputation as a higher education center derives in large part from the teaching and research activities of more than 100 colleges and universities located in the Greater Boston Area, with more than 250000 students attending college in Boston and Cambridge alone.[153] Within the city, Boston University exudes a large presence as the city's fourth-largest employer,[154] and maintains a campus along the Charles River on Commonwealth Avenue and its medical campus in the South End. Northeastern University, another large private university, is located in the Fenway area, and is particularly known for its Engineering, Business and Health Science schools and cooperative education program. Suffolk University, the third largest university in Boston, is located in the Beacon Hill area, and is known for its law school and business school.[155][156] Boston College, a private Catholic Jesuit university, whose original campus was located in the South End, now straddles the Boston (Brighton)-Newton border, with planned expansions further into Brighton.[157] Boston's only public university is the University of Massachusetts Boston, located on Columbia Point in Dorchester. Roxbury Community College and Bunker Hill Community College are the city's two public community colleges.
Boston University
Boston has several smaller private colleges and universities. Emmanuel College, Massachusetts College of Art and Design, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Simmons College, Wheelock College, and Wentworth Institute of Technology are founding members of the Colleges of the Fenway and are located adjacent to Northeastern University. New England School of Law, a small private law school located in the theater district, was originally established as America's first all female law school.[158] Emerson College, a small private college with a strong reputation in the fields of performing arts, journalism, writing, and film, is located near Boston Common.
Boston is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including The Art Institute of Boston (Lesley University), Massachusetts College of Art, New England Institute of Art, New England School of Art and Design (Suffolk University), and the New England Conservatory (the oldest independent conservatory in the United States).[159] Other conservatories include the Boston Conservatory, the School of the Museum of Fine Arts and Berklee College of Music.
Several universities located outside Boston have a major presence in the city. Harvard University, the nation's oldest, is located across the Charles River in Cambridge. Its business and medical schools are in Boston, and there are plans for additional expansion into Boston's Allston neighborhood.[160] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which originated in Boston and was long known as "Boston Tech", moved across the river to Cambridge in 1916. Tufts University administers its medical and dental school adjacent to the Tufts Medical Center, a 451-bed academic medical institution that is home to both a full-service hospital for adults and the Floating Hospital for Children. Tufts' main campus, including the renowned Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, is located just north of the city in Somerville and Medford.
Boston Public Schools, the oldest public school system in the US, enrolls 57000 students from pre-kindergarten to grade 12.[17] The system operates 145 schools, which includes Boston Latin School (the oldest public school in the United States, established in 1635) which, along with Boston Latin Academy and John D. O'Bryant School of Math & Science, are highly prestigious public exam schools admitting students in the 7th and 9th grades only and serving grades 712), English High (the oldest public high school, established 1821), and the Mather School (the oldest public elementary school, established in 1639).[17] In 2002, Forbes Magazine ranked the Boston Public Schools as the best large city school system in the country, with a graduation rate of 82%.[161] In 2005, the student population within the school system was 45.5% Black or African American, 31.2% Hispanic or Latino, 14% White, and 9% Asian, as compared with 24%, 14%, 49%, and 8% respectively for the city as a whole.[162][163] The city also has private, parochial, and charter schools and approximately 3000 students of racial minorities attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council, or METCO.
Healthcare
See also: List of hospitals in Boston
Massachusetts General Hospital
Longwood Medical and Academic Area
The Longwood Medical and Academic Area is a region of Boston with a concentration of medical and research facilities, including Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Children's Hospital Boston, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, and Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences.[164] Massachusetts General Hospital is near the Beacon Hill neighborhood, with the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital nearby. St. Elizabeth's Medical Center is in Brighton Center of Boston's Brighton neighborhood. New England Baptist Hospital is in Mission Hill. Boston has Veterans Affairs medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods.[165] The Boston Public Health Commission, an agency of the Massachusetts government, oversees health concerns for Boston residents.[166]
Menino Pavilion of Boston Medical Center
Many of Boston's medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area and in Massachusetts General Hospital are well-known research medical centers affiliated with Harvard Medical School.[167] Tufts Medical Center (formerly Tufts-New England Medical Center), located in the southern portion of the Chinatown neighborhood, is affiliated with Tufts University School of Medicine. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighborhood, is the primary teaching facility for the Boston University School of Medicine as well as the largest trauma center in the Boston area;[168] it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital, which was the first municipal hospital in the United States.[169]
Utilities
The Quabbin Reservoir is the largest body of water in Massachusetts and is one of the primary water supplies for Boston.
Water supply and sewage-disposal services are provided by the Boston Water and Sewer Commission.[170] The Commission in turn purchases wholesale water and sewage disposal from the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. The city's water comes from the Quabbin Reservoir and the Wachusett Reservoir, which are about 65 miles (105 km) and 35 miles (56 km) west of the city respectively.[171] Boston's tap water has been ranked among the best in the country,[172] and Boston is one of five cities in the country with tap water pure enough to be exempt from Environmental Protection Agency filtration requirements.[173] NSTAR is the exclusive electricity distributor to the city, though due to deregulation, customers now have a choice of electric generation companies. Natural gas is distributed by National Grid plc (originally KeySpan, the successor company to Boston Gas); only commercial and industrial customers may choose an alternate natural gas supplier.[174] Municipal steam services are provided by Veolia Energy North America and its subsidiary Trigen Energy Corporation;[175][176] which comprise the original assets of the defunct Boston Heating Company.[177][178]
Verizon, successor to New England Telephone, NYNEX, Bell Atlantic, and earlier, the Bell System, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various national wireless companies. Cable television is available from Comcast and RCN, with broadband Internet access provided by the same companies in certain areas. A variety of DSL providers and resellers are able to provide broadband Internet over Verizon-owned phone lines.[179] Galaxy Internet Services (GIS) has also moved to the forefront to deploy municipal Wi-Fi broadband Internet throughout areas of the city of Boston.[180]
Transportation
Main article: Transportation in Boston
Logan International Airport, located in the East Boston neighborhood, handles most of the scheduled passenger service for Boston.[181] Surrounding the city are three major general aviation relievers: Beverly Municipal Airport to the north, Hanscom Field in Bedford, to the west, and Norwood Memorial Airport to the south. TF Green Airport serving Providence, Rhode Island, Bradley International Airport outside of Hartford, Connecticut, and Manchester-Boston Airport in Manchester, New Hampshire, also provide scheduled passenger service to the Boston area.
Many of Boston's roads were based upon horse and cart paths from the 17th century. A few horse carriages are still found in Boston today, transporting tourists around the city.
Downtown Boston's streets were not organized on a grid, but grew in a meandering organic pattern from early in the 17th century. They were created as needed, and as wharves and landfill expanded the area of the small Boston peninsula.[182] Along with several rotaries, roads change names and lose and add lanes seemingly at random. By contrast, streets in the Back Bay, East Boston, the South End, and South Boston do follow a grid system.
Boston is the eastern terminus of cross-continent I-90, which in Massachusetts runs along the Massachusetts Turnpike. Originally known as the Circumferential Highway, Route 128 carries I-95 over a portion of its route west and north of the city. US 1 and I-93 run concurrently north to south through the city from Charlestown to Dorchester, joined by Massachusetts Route 3 after the Zakim Bridge over the Charles River. The elevated portion of the Central Artery, which carried these routes through downtown Boston, was replaced with the O'Neill Tunnel during the Big Dig, substantially completed in early 2006.
An MBTA Red Line train going over the Longfellow Bridge
With nearly a third of Bostonians using public transit for their commute to work, Boston has the fourth-highest rate of public transit usage in the country.[183] The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operates what was the first underground rapid transit system in the United States and is now the fourth busiest rapid transit system in the country,[18] having been expanded to 65.5 miles (105 km) of track,[184] reaching as far north as Malden, as far south as Braintree, and as far west as Newtoncollectively known as the "T". The MBTA also operates the nation's seventh busiest bus network, as well as water shuttles, and the nation's busiest commuter rail network outside of New York City or Chicago, totaling over 200 miles (320 km),[184] extending north to the Merrimack Valley, west to Worcester, and south to Providence.
South Station is the largest train station and intercity bus terminal in Greater Boston and serves as a major intermodal transportation hub.
Amtrak's Northeast Corridor and Chicago lines originate at South Station and stop at Back Bay. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which serve New York City, Washington, DC, and points in between, also stop at Route 128 Station in the southwestern suburbs of Boston.[185] Meanwhile, Amtrak's Downeaster service to Maine originates at North Station.[186]
Nicknamed "The Walking City," Boston hosts more pedestrian commuters than do other comparably populated cities. Owing to factors such as the compactness of the city and large student population, 13% of the population commutes by foot, making it the highest percentage of pedestrian commuters in the country out of the major American cities.[187] In 2011, Walk Score ranked Boston the third most walkable city in the United States.[188][189]
Between 1999 and 2006, Bicycling magazine named Boston as one of the worst cities in the US for cycling three times;[190] regardless, it has one of the highest rates of bicycle commuting.[191] In September 2007, Mayor Menino started a bicycle program called Boston Bikes with a goal of improving bicycling conditions by adding bike lanes, racks, and offering bikeshare programs. In 2008, as a consequence the same magazine put Boston on its list of its "Five for the Future" list as a "Future Best City" for biking,[192][193] and Boston's bicycle commuting percentage increased from 1% in 2000 to 2.1% in 2009.[194] The bikeshare program, called Hubway, launched in late July 2011,[195] logging more than 140000 rides before the close of its first season.[196] In tandem with the program, police announced intention to step up enforcement of traffic laws, both on drivers and bikers,[197] as part of an effort to improve safety and ameliorate the city's growing clash between bikers and motorists.[198][199][200] The neighboring cities of Cambridge, Somerville, and Brookline all intend to sign on to the Hubway program for launch in summer 2012.[201]
Sister cities
Main article: Sister cities of Boston
Boston has eight official sister cities as recognized by Sister Cities International.[202] The date column indicates the year in which the relationship was established. Kyoto was Boston's first sister city.
City Country Date References
Kyoto Japan 1959 [203]
Strasbourg France 1960 [204][205]
Barcelona Spain 1980 [206][207]
Hangzhou China People's Republic of China 1982 [202]
Padua Italy 1983 [208]
Melbourne Australia 1985
[209]
Taipei Taiwan Republic of China (Taiwan) 1996 [210]
Sekondi-Takoradi Ghana Ghana 2001 [202]
Boston also has less formal friendship or partnership relationships with an additional three cities.
City Country Date References
Boston United Kingdom United Kingdom 1999 [211][212]
Haifa Israel Israel 1999 [213]
Valladolid Spain Spain 2007 [214]
See also
Portal icon Boston portal
Portal icon Massachusetts portal
Boston in fiction
Boston nicknames
List of diplomatic missions in Boston
List of fictional people from Boston
List of people from Boston
List of songs about Boston
List of tallest buildings in Boston
List of television shows set in Boston
National Register of Historic Places listings in Boston, Massachusetts
Notes
^ abcde Dalager, Norman (August 10, 2006). "What's in a nickname?". Boston Globe. Retrieved April 8, 2009.
^ ab "Boston Travel & Vacations". Britannia.com. 2006. Retrieved April 8, 2009.
^ "Massachusetts by Place and County Subdivision". American FactFinder. United States Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 1. Retrieved April 29, 2009.
^ "United States by Urbanized Area; and for Puerto Rico". American FactFinder. United States Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 1. Retrieved April 29, 2009.
^ "United States by County by State, and for Puerto Rico". American FactFinder. United States Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 1. Retrieved April 29, 2009.
^ abc "Population and Housing Occupancy Status: 2010 State County Subdivision, 2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File". US Census Bureau. Retrieved March 23, 2011.
^ "Alphabetically sorted list of Census 2000 Urbanized Areas" (TXT). United States Census Bureau, Geography Division. Retrieved April 11, 2009.
^ ab "Metropolitan and micropolitan statistical area population and estimated components of change: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008 (CBSA-EST2008-alldata)" (CSV). United States Census Bureau, Population Division. Archived from the original on March 22, 2009. Retrieved April 11, 2009.
^ ab "Combined statistical area population and estimated components of change: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008 (CSA-EST2008-alldata)" (CSV). United States Census Bureau, Population Division. Retrieved April 11, 2009.[dead link]
^ "ZIP Code Lookup Search By City". United States Postal Service. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
^ "massachusetts". infoplease. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
^ Steinbicker, Earl (2000). 50 one day adventuresMassachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, Maine, and New Hampshire.. Hastings House/Daytrips Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 0-8038-2008-9.
^ "Boston Worcester Manchester Demographic Profile: Region 19". Federal Transit Administration. January 31, 2007. Retrieved August 30, 2010. 21 pp.
^ "Boston-Worcester-Manchester, MA-RI-NH Combined Statistical Area". US DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Economics and Statistics Administration US Census Bureau. 2007. Retrieved June 20, 2009. Included in the CSA: MA counties: Bristol, Essex, Middlesex, Norfolk, Plymouth, Suffolk and Worcester; NH counties: Belknap, Hillsborough, Merrimack, Rockingham and Strafford; RI counties (entire state): Bristol, Kent, Newport, Providence and Washington (South County)
^ abcde Banner, David. "Boston History The History of Boston, Massachusetts". SearchBoston. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
^ abcde "Boston Tourism". Thomson Gale (Thomson Corporation). 2006. Retrieved April 28, 2007.
^ abcd "BPS at a Glance". Boston Public Schools. March 14, 2007. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2007.
^ ab Fagundes, David; Grant, Anthony (April 28, 2003). The Rough Guide to Boston. Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-044-9.
^ Banner, David. "Going to College in Boston". SearchBoston. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
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^ ab Heudorfer, Bonnie; Bluestone, Barry (2004). "The Greater Boston Housing Report Card" (PDF). Center for Urban and Regional Policy (CURP), Northeastern University. p. 6. Retrieved February 19, 2007.
^ "Quality of Living global city rankings 2010 Mercer survey". Mercer. May 26, 2010. Retrieved August 20, 2011.
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^ ab State Street Trust Company; Walton Advertising and Printing Company (1922) (TXT). Boston: one hundred years a city. 2. Boston: State Street Trust Company. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
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^ Historical Atlas of Massachusetts. University of Massachusetts. 1991. p. 37.
^ Holleran, Michael (2001) "Problems with Change" Boston's Changeful Times: Origins of Preservation and Planning in America The Johns Hopkins University Press p. Pg. 41 ISBN 0-8018-6644-8 . Retrieved August 22, 2010
^ Staff writer (March 26, 1892, Wednesday). "BOSTON'S ANNEXATION SCHEMES.; PROPOSAL TO ABSORB CAMBRIDGE AND OTHER NEAR-BY TOWNS". The New York Times: p. 11. Archived from the original on March 27, 1892. Retrieved August 21, 2010.
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^ Cf. Roessner, p.293. "The HOPE VI housing program, inspired in part by the success of Harbor Point, was created by legislation passed by Congress in 1992."
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^ After New York City and San Francisco. Many cities, such as Paterson, New Jersey, are denser but are part of a larger city's metropolitan area.
^ http://www.massbike.org/bikeways/neponset/
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^ Official Boston neighborhoods, defined here [2].
^ NCDC maximum temperature days chart
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^ "Weather". City of Boston Film Bureau. 2007. Retrieved April 29, 2007.
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^ Wangsness, Lisa (October 30, 2005). "Snowstorm packs October surprise". The Boston Globe. Retrieved April 29, 2007.
^ Ryan, Andrew (July 11, 2007). "Sea breeze keeps Boston 25 degrees cooler while others swelter". The Boston Globe. Retrieved March 31, 2009.
^ Ryan, Andrew (June 9, 2008). "Boston sea breeze drops temperature 20 degrees in 20 minutes". The Boston Globe. Retrieved March 31, 2009.
^ "NowData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2011-12-14.
^ "Climatological Normals of Boston". Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved 2010-05-11.
^ "TOTAL POPULATION (P1), 2010 Census Summary File 1, All County Subdivisions within Massachusetts". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
^ "Massachusetts by Place and County Subdivision - GCT-T1. Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
^ "1990 Census of Population, General Population Characteristics: Massachusetts". US Census Bureau. December 1990. Table 76: General Characteristics of Persons, Households, and Families: 1990. 1990 CP-1-23. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
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